SB 3.11.17-20

 Text 17: O spiritually powerful one, you can understand the movements of eternal time, which is the controlling form of the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Because you are a self-realized person, you can see everything by the power of mystic vision.

Text 18: Maitreya said: O Vidura, the four millenniums are called the Satya-, Tretā-, Dvāpara- and Kali-yuga. The aggregate number of years of all of these combined is equal to twelve thousand years of the demigods.

Text 19: The duration of the Satya millennium equals 4,800 years of the years of the demigods; the duration of the Tretā millennium equals 3,600 years of the demigods; the duration of the Dvāpara millennium equals 2,400 years; and that of the Kali millennium is 1,200 years of the demigods.

Text 20: The transitional periods before and after every millennium, which are a few hundred years as aforementioned, are known as yuga-sandhyās, or the conjunctions of two millenniums, according to the expert astronomers. In those periods all kinds of religious activities are performed.

Śrīdhara Svāmi-kṛtā Bhāvārtha-dīpikā Vyākhyā

With yoga perfected by yoga practice. [17] It should be understood from the strength of the next verse that it is twelve thousand years. Avadhāna (attention) is what is paid attention to, and sandhyā (twilight) and aṃśa (portion) are included with it. [18] In Kṛtayuga, four thousand, and four hundred each for the twilight and twilight portion, thus eight hundred. This should be applied similarly for Tretā, etc. [19] * * At the beginning of a yuga is the twilight, at the end is the portion. The hundreds mentioned are the number of those two, in between which is the yuga. He states its particularity. Where: Where special dharmas like cow sacrifice, etc. are prescribed, is the meaning. But the common dharma exists even in the twilight and portion. [20]

Śrī Vaṃśīdhara-kṛtā Bhāvārtha-dīpikā Prakāśa Vyākhyā

If one asks how knowledge of the lifespan of those there is possible, due to yogis being omniscient, you know everything, he says - The Lord. The Lord is you. With the eye of knowledge, the wise are the knowers. [17] * * For the Bhṛgus and others outside of the kalpa have lifespans equal to Brahmā, so to state Brahmā's lifespan, he first states the measure of yugas - Kṛta. With 360 years of humans being one year of the gods, their four yugas are twelve thousand of those, which for humans becomes 4,320,000 years. That same four yugas of Satya etc. is 1,728,000 years by human measure for Satya. 1,296,000 years for Tretā. 864,000 years for Dvāpara. 432,000 years for Kali. As stated in the Sanatkumāra Saṃhitā: "1,728,000 is the measure of Kṛta, then 1,296,000 is the measure of Tretā. 864,000 for Dvāpara, 432,000 for Kali. 4,320,000 by human measure is a full cycle of four yugas." There, Satya is 1,728,000, Tretā 1,296,000, Dvāpara 864,000, Kali 432,000. Thus two thousand yugas of the gods is a day and night of Brahmā, which for humans is 8,640,000,000. [18] * * Thus in Tretā the measure is three thousand. The twilight and twilight portion are six hundred. In Dvāpara the measure is two thousand. The twilight and twilight portion are four hundred. Thus in Kali the measure is one thousand, and the twilight and twilight portion are two hundred. This is the distinction. [19] * * The reading "between the twilight and twilight portion" is found in many older manuscripts. Its meaning, as explained by Viśvanātha, is the time period in between. Of that yuga, where: in which. Is the meaning: The special dharma of that yuga which is uncommon, like cow sacrifice etc., by "etc." things like meat offerings to ancestors. Understanding is that it is prescribed. As stated: "In Kali, avoid five things: horse sacrifice, cow sacrifice, renunciation, meat offerings to ancestors, and producing a son with the husband's brother" in the Nirṇayasindhu. But what Devala said: "As long as there is caste division, as long as there are parts on earth, one should perform Agnihotra and renunciation in Kali yuga" - that is meant for the extremely detached, otherwise one would become an eater of air and go to hell, which should be considered by the wise. As stated: "A renunciate goes to hell if engaged in seeking. With three desires, he dwells long in the terrible Kumbhīpāka hell." Or, where: in which yugas the special dharma of meditation, sacrifice, worship, and chanting is as stated: "In Kṛta by meditating on Viṣṇu, in Tretā by performing sacrifices, in Dvāpara by worship, in Kali by chanting of Hari" - the common dharma is based on the qualities. Also, whatever dharma is for a yuga exists even in its twilight and twilight portion - this too should be known. [20]

Śrī Rādhā Ramaṇa dāsa Gosvāmi Viracitā Dīpanī Vyākhyā

The Lord who is omniscient and capable of destroying everything, you know the course and particular nature of all that. The reason is viśvam (the universe). [17] * Avadhīyate means the beginning limit of the yuga is fixed, so avadhāna is sandhyā (twilight), and the end limit is fixed, so avadhāna is the twilight portion, and that is included. [18] * * The numbers four thousand etc. are by divine years. 360 years of humans make one year of the gods. Thus 12,000 years of the gods make their four yugas. For humans, the four yugas are 4,320,000 years. There, Satya is 1,728,000 years, Tretā is 1,296,000, Dvāpara is 864,000, Kali is 432,000 - this should be known. There, 2000 four-yuga cycles of the gods make a day and night of Brahmā. And that becomes 8,640,000,000 for humans. [19] The reading "between the twilight and twilight portion" is approved by the commentators, not "between the twilights." It means the middle part denoted by the word yuga has a special, distinguishing dharma prescribed only in the middle part, not in the twilight and twilight portion, accepting a restricted scope - this is the meaning, it is said. The common dharma characterized by varṇāśrama duties exists there too - this is the explanation of the reason for that. [20]

Śrīmad Vīrarāghava Vyākhyā

Do not say "I do not know", he says. The Lord: He knows the future course of the Lord's self. If you ask "O Maitreya! How can I know for certain?", he says: The wise like you, knowers, with the eye perfected by yoga, see the universe. There is nothing that is not an object of yogic perception - this is the meaning. [17] * * Thus asked, the sage, to state that for those situated outside the three worlds up to Brahmā, a thousand yugas is the measure of a day, and a hundred years of 360 such days is the measure of lifespan, first states in four verses the measure of a yuga, measure of the yuga portions and twilights, nature of the yugas, and gradation of dharma practice in the yugas. There, in two he states the yuga measure. Kṛta: The four yugas beginning with Kṛta, along with the twilight that is paid attention to as avadhāna, and the portion, that complete four yugas is determined as 12,000 divine years. [18] Moreover, in Kṛta etc. respectively four, three, two thousand are counted. These should be understood as doubled. This means: First, Kṛtayuga by divine measure is 4000 years, and 400 each for the twilight and twilight portion, thus 4800 years is the measure of Kṛtayuga with twilight and portion. Tretā's measure is 3600 years with twilight and portion. Dvāpara's measure is 2400 years with twilight and portion. Kali's measure is 1200 years with twilight and portion. At the beginning of a yuga is the twilight, at the end is the twilight portion. The hundreds mentioned above the thousands are the measure of those twilight and portions respectively - this should be understood. [19]

Now, to resolve the doubt whether only the sandhyāṃśa (transition period) is considered a yuga, or whether it is the middle period between them, he states that in the four yugas, the duties of the respective varṇas (castes) and āśramas (life stages) must definitely be performed. With the sandhyāṃśas. The knowers of yugas say that the period which is in between the two sandhyās and sandhyāṃśas, whose numbers are in hundreds, is called a yuga. In that yuga, dharma (duty) in its threefold form - nitya (daily), naimittika (occasional) and kāmya (optional) - is prescribed, meaning it should be performed. (20)

Śrīmad Vijayadhvaja Tīrtha-kṛtā Pada Ratnāvalī Vyākhyā

To show that Maitreya has the intellectual capacity to understand what is to be said, he states: Bhagavān (The Lord). He knows the movement, the progress, the functioning of time, which is the inner controller of time. Why? Because the dhīras (wise ones), who delight in wisdom, the knowers, perceive the universe with their yogarāḍḍha (yoga-perfected) eye of the eightfold yoga. You are also one of them, therefore [you know] - this is the meaning. (17)

Before describing the lifespans of those dwelling in Maharloka etc., he states the duration of the four yugas like Kṛta etc. along with their sandhyā periods. Kṛta. With divine [years] existing for the gods. (18)

He elaborates on this: Four etc. Thus, in the Kṛta and other [yugas], ten thousand are counted in descending order for each, twice the hundreds remain as the two thousand hundreds forming the preceding and succeeding sandhyās of Kṛta etc., starting from the preceding and succeeding sandhyās of Kaliyuga they should be known as doubled. Thus, the preceding and succeeding sandhyās of Kaliyuga are one hundred, of Dvāpara two hundred, of Tretā three hundred, and of Kṛtayuga four hundred - in this way the twenty hundreds are doubled compared to the yugas. (19)

Then, which period is considered as the Kṛta and other yugas? To this he says: Sandhye. The knowers of yugas call that very period a yuga which is between the two sandhyās and sandhyāṃśas whose numbers are in hundreds, where the dharma of that particular yuga is prescribed. In Kṛta etc., the sandhyā periods are special times connected to the preceding and succeeding boundaries called sandhyāṃśas. (20)

Śrīmaj Jīva Gosvāmi-kṛtā Krama Sandarbha Vyākhyā

The meaning of Kṛta etc. is: For humans, 360 years make one year of the gods. With 12,000 of these, their four yugas, which for humans is calculated as 4,320,000 years. That much is the four yugas beginning with Satya. Because Satya (1,728,000), Tretā (1,296,000), Dvāpara (864,000), Kali (432,000) - thus 2000 yugas of the gods make one day and night of Brahmā. And that for humans is eight padmas plus sixty-four crores (8,000,006,400,000,000). (18-19)

In "between the sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa", it should be "in between the sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa". (20-23)

Śrīmad Viśvanātha Cakravarti-kṛtā Sārārtha darśinī Vyākhyā

Bhagavān (The Lord) You, by yogarāḍḍha (yoga perfection), by yoga accomplishment. (17)

Since Bhṛgu and others whose lifespans are beyond a kalpa have lifespans equal to Brahmā, to state Brahmā's lifespan he describes the measure of yugas etc. Kṛta. With years, with thousands of years. Avadhāna means sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa, along with that. (18)

In order means: In Kṛtayuga four thousand. Four hundred each for sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa, thus eight hundred. Similarly for Tretā etc. (19)

At the beginning of a yuga is sandhyā, at the end is sandhyāṃśa - of what nature are these? Those whose number of hundreds have been stated, the time which is in between them is called a yuga. Where dharma means the specific dharma consisting of meditation, sacrifice, service and glorification, while the general dharma is secondary. In the sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa periods also it exists. Moreover, the dharma of each yuga is predominant in its sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa periods too - this should be understood. For humans, the four yugas are 360 years, thus for humans the four yugas are 4,320,000 years as stated in the scriptures by the word yuga. There, Satya is 1,728,000 years. Tretā is 1,296,000. Dvāpara is 864,000. Kali is 432,000. (20)

Śrīmac Chukadeva-kṛta Siddhānta Pradīpaḥ

O Maitreya! By yogarāḍḍha, by accomplishment of meditation yoga. (17)

To state that for all beings from the three worlds up to the four-faced Brahmā, one thousand four-yugas is the measure of a day, and a hundred years consisting of 360 days is the lifespan, he describes the measure of the four yugas and the gradation of dharma. Kṛta etc. with four [verses]. With twelve, with twelve thousand. Avadhāna means sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa, along with that determined by the sages. (18)

Thousands are the measure of a yuga, hundreds are the measure of sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa. (19)

The period which is in between the sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa whose numbers are in hundreds, measuring thousands, that they call a yuga. At the beginning of Kṛtayuga is sandhyā measuring 400 years, at its end is sandhyāṃśa measuring 400 years, in between is Kṛtayuga measuring 4000 years. Similarly for Tretā etc. Although in general there is dharma in the sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa periods too, predominantly in which yuga dharma is prescribed in gradation [is called that yuga]. (20)

Śrīmad Vallabhācārya Viracitā Subodhinī Vyākhyā

To establish Maitreya's knowledge for the purpose of narration, he says: Bhagavān. You are Bhagavān (The Lord), because of being so by the grace of Bhagavān, and because of having faith in Bhagavān. Therefore you know the movement of Bhagavān who is time. For he knows his own self. Moreover, the dhīras (wise ones) who are patient with the troubles of saṃsāra, who are perfected in yoga, perceive the entire universe with their yoga-perfected eye. Thus they perceive through the dharma born of yoga and through knowledge. "With the eye" is said to remove all doubt. Being perfected in yoga, there is no possibility of delusion. (17)

Just as days are counted by moments and such, so are their days counted by yugas. The nature of Kṛta and others is described as follows: Kṛta is the name of a particular time period. In that time, whatever is to be done by time, or its remedy, that is already done. Nothing remains to be done for those born in that yuga. Tretā means one-third to be done, Dvāpara means two parts to be done, Kali means conflict, everything is subject to dispute, nothing is determined - this is the meaning. Therefore in the Śruti it is said "The four stomas are Kṛta" and "The five are Kali", thus the five-fold stoma is criticized. Trivṛt, Pañcadaśa, Saptadaśa and Ekaviṃśa - these are the only four stomas, the four varṇas; they were created, so there is no dispute about them. But the five-stoma view is criticized by the word Kali. The six-stoma view is not criticized, as explained in "whose Triṇava is internal" etc. Thus Kali is a synonym for what is criticized. For those dwelling in a kalpa, the time when everything can be done and is fruitful is called Kṛta, represented by the nectar-pitcher. The criticized time represented by the poison-pitcher is Kali, where there is only conflict, not fulfillment of purpose. These four together are called a caturyuga. Their duration is stated: By divine years. By twelve years. Thousands is implied. Divine years cannot be counted by small numbers. A thousand is the highest limit, so the number thousand is obtained. The word 'divine' itself could imply hundreds, but by the principle "In cases of doubt, from the remainder of the sentence", the number thousand is obtained from the subsequent phrase "thousands are enumerated". By twelve thousand divine years, a caturyuga is carefully defined. Avadhāna means interval. Sandhyā occurs at the interval. Sandhyāṃśa is a small portion, like the lingering of a bell sound. The yuga is in between. ||18||

Sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa are connected with the yuga, so from the connection of both, the yuga nature is determined by the combined power of the whole. Their intermediate durations are stated: Four thousand for Kṛtayuga, three for Tretā, two for Dvāpara, one for Kali - thus the thousands are enumerated in order. Sandhyā is one-tenth of the yuga, and sandhyāṃśa is the same. So that many hundreds for each, doubled for the total. From 'ca', some additional time is also obtained, if there is any delay in the Lord's work. ||19||

Apprehending that everything is a yuga, to refute that and state that only the middle period is called yuga, it is said: Between sandhyā and aṃśa. The period between sandhyā and aṃśa. "By hundreds" indicates that sandhyā and aṃśa are also specific times, not deities. The knowers call that period the yuga. This is the authority. How is the endless time, which is inherently unlimited, made finite by what condition? Answering that, the condition is stated: Where dharma is enjoined. In which specific time dharma is enjoined, not reiterated. In the sandhyā the previous dharma is lost, then at the start of the yuga, due to lack of traditional knowledge, the sages enjoin new dharma. That injunction continues guiding beings until the end of the yuga, so it is denoted by the word yuga, being conditioned by dharma. ||20||

Śrīmad Gosvāmi Śrī Puruṣottama Caraṇa Viracitaḥ Śrī Subodhinī Prakāśaḥ

Kṛtam ityatra. Kālena yatkṛtam iti. The action caused by time is imperishable, this is the meaning. Kartavyateti. The remainder of the action. This explanation is in response to the question, not universally applicable, with this intention they say - teṣām ityādi. That is, in response to how it is said, they say - divyā hītyādi. Ata iti. It is obtained from wood. The word divya excludes human and ancestral. || 18 ||

Catvārītyatra. Samudāyayogaśaktibhyām iti. By the power of yoga in the collective sense, as stated in sandhyetyādi, this is the meaning. Teṣām iti. Of the yugas. Tāvānevāṃśa iti. Only the tenth part beyond the sandhyā is called aṃśa, thus the time before the beginning of the yuga is called sandhyā, and the time after the end of the yuga is called aṃśa, this is the meaning. Yadītyādi. Just as in the story of Māṇḍavya, the sun bound by the devoted wife did not rise for seven days, such an interval is meant. || 19 ||

Sandhyāṃśayor ityatra. How is the injunction consistent when the dharma attended to by śruti exists, they say - sandhyetyādi. Due to the long interval in the progression of yugas, in the absence of people connected to Kṛtayuga in the first cycle, the tradition is not known by future people, so due to its absence, that dharma is made known by those long-lived sages, thus the injunction is consistent due to its newness, this is the meaning. Bhavatīti. Time becomes. || 20 ||

Śrī Giridhara-kṛtā Bāla Prabodhinī

Now, thinking "I do not know that", he says - Bhagavān iti. According to the principle "One is what one has faith in", being a devotee of the Lord, he is indeed the Lord himself, therefore he certainly knows the nature of time, which is the form of the Lord. There he shows the a fortiori argument - viśvam iti. The wise, with senses turned away from objects, established in yoga, with the eye perfected through yoga, with supernatural ability, see the entire universe, even supersensory objects - what more needs to be said about what you see? This is the connection. || 17 ||

Thus asked respectfully, Maitreya, since the description of its duration depends on describing the measure of the yugas, first states that measure with two verses beginning with kṛtam. Avadhīyate (it is bounded) means vyavadhīyate (it is divided), by this avadhāna means sandhyā and aṃśa, along with these the four yugas beginning with Kṛta are determined by twelve thousand divine years measured by the gods' standard, this is the connection. || 18 ||

In the Kṛta and other yugas, four, three, two and one thousand respectively, and twice as many hundreds are stated, this is the connection. In Kṛtayuga four thousand, and four hundred each for sandhyā and aṃśa, thus eight hundred; in Tretā three thousand, and three hundred each for sandhyā and aṃśa, thus six hundred; in Dvāpara two thousand, and two hundred each for sandhyā and aṃśa, thus four hundred; in Kaliyuga, one thousand and two hundred for sandhyā and aṃśa, this should be understood. || 19 ||

Thinking that all time is a yuga, he says - sandhyāṃśayor iti. Of the two with hundreds as their measure, the stated hundreds are the measure of those two, at the beginning of the yuga is sandhyā, at the end is aṃśa, the time in between, that very time the knowers of the characteristics of yugas call a yuga, this is the connection. Where in the yuga a special dharma like cow sacrifice etc. is prescribed. The general dharma like hearing and chanting exists even in the sandhyā and aṃśa, this is the idea. || 20 ||

Hindī Anuvāda

You know well the course of Bhagavān Time; for the wise see the entire universe with their divinely perfected yogic vision. || 17 ||

Śrī Maitreya said - Vidura! Satyayuga, Tretā, Dvāpara and Kali - these four yugas along with their sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa last for twelve thousand divine years of the gods, this has been stated. || 18 ||

In these four yugas Satya etc. there are four, three, two and one thousand divine years respectively. Twice as many hundred years are in their sandhyā and sandhyāṃśa. || 19 ||

At the beginning of a yuga is sandhyā and at the end is sandhyāṃśa. Their year count has been stated in hundreds. The time between these is what the knowers of time have called a yuga. In each yuga a special dharma is prescribed. || 20 ||

SB 3.11.13-16

 Text 13: Influential stars, planets, luminaries and atoms all over the universe are rotating in their respective orbits under the direction of the Supreme, represented by eternal kāla.

Text 14: There are five different names for the orbits of the sun, moon, stars and luminaries in the firmament, and they each have their own saṁvatsara.

Text 15: O Vidura, the sun enlivens all living entities with his unlimited heat and light. He diminishes the duration of life of all living entities in order to release them from their illusion of material attachment, and he enlarges the path of elevation to the heavenly kingdom. He thus moves in the firmament with great velocity, and therefore everyone should offer him respects once every five years with all ingredients of worship.

Text 16: Vidura said: I now understand the life durations of the residents of the Pitā planets and heavenly planets as well as that of the human beings. Now kindly inform me of the durations of life of those greatly learned living entities who are beyond the range of a kalpa.

Śrīdhara Svāmi-kṛtā Bhāvārtha-dīpikā Vyākhyā

He explains how the sun constantly diminishes lifespan in this way. The planets, moon and others, the constellations like Aśvinī and others, the stars and other celestial bodies - the time cycle marked by these, situated there is the unblinking, time-embodied, all-pervading lord sun who revolves around the world-sphere consisting of twelve zodiac signs. || 13 ||

The divisions of the year etc. should be understood through the solar, Jupiter, civil, lunar and sidereal month distinctions. Some others say this: When the new moon of the bright fortnight coincides with a sankranti, then the solar and lunar months begin simultaneously - that is a year. From that, in a solar year it increases by 6 days, in a lunar year it decreases by 6 days. Thus there is a 12 day difference between the two. In this way, with varying differences, 5 years pass, during which there are two intercalary months. Then the sixth year begins again. || 14 ||

Being of such a nature, the embodiment of time should always be worshipped by the vigilant, he says. He who: The effect to be produced like sprouts etc., making the potency of seeds etc. related to that face the effect by his time-formed power, runs in heaven and the atmosphere. Who is he? The sun, who is a particular form of the great elements in the form of an orb of light. Why does he run? For the sake of man's rest - rest meaning delusion, for removing that, by spending life etc., meaning turning away attachment to sense objects. For those with desires, expanding ritual-based results consisting of the guṇas (guṇamaya) like heaven etc. through sacrifices. Worship him who initiates the five-year cycle. || 15 ||

This lifespan calculated as 100 years by one's own measure is conceived daily. The creation is called kalpa - the three worlds. Beyond that. The knowers. || 16 ||

Śrī Vaṃśīdhara-kṛtā Bhāvārtha-dīpikā Prakāśa Vyākhyā

Stars means Dhruva etc. Because there are no constellations other than Aśvinī etc. It should be understood that by the word "constellation" in association with stars, Svāmi's feet mean only Dhruva etc. by the word stars. || 13 ||

Solar, Jupiter etc. The different types of months are stated in astronomy texts: "They call a lunar month from one new moon to the next, a solar month likewise from the sun's transit through a zodiac sign. They say a civil month is 30 days, and a sidereal month is from the revolution of a constellation." Year means by solar motion. Parivatsara by Jupiter's motion. Anuvatsara by lunar motion. Since the constellations and stars have no independent motion, only the motion of the wheel is their motion. There, a year of the constellations is 12 months of 27 day measures. Since stars have no fixed number, a year called Iḍāvatsara consists of civil months of 30 days each. This is the distinction according to another view, he says - "Some say" etc. Simultaneous beginning means starting at the same time. The year in which the solar and lunar months begin together is Saṃvatsara. The next is Parivatsara, then Iḍāvatsara, then Anuvatsara, then Vatsara. Then again the cycle of Saṃvatsara etc. begins in the same way - this should be understood. Moreover, "From the Śaka year, in the remainder after dividing by 5, the years beginning with Saṃ etc. are remembered as Saṃ, Pari, Iḍā, Anu in order, and likewise beginning with Ud. In the reckoning of Jupiter, 60 Parivatsaras beginning with Prabhava are remembered by the great sages. One year's measure is the time Jupiter takes to transit one zodiac sign. Thus always - Prabhava, Vibhava, Śukla, Pramoda, then Prajāpati, Aṅgirā, Śrīmukha, Bhāva, Yuvan, Dhātṛ, Īśvara, Bahudhānya, Pramāthin, Vikrama, Vṛṣa, Citrabhānu, Subhānu, Tāraṇa, Pārthiva, Vyaya, Sarvajit, Sarvadhārin, Virodha, Vikṛta, Khara, Nandana, Vijaya, Jaya, Manmatha, Durmukha, Hemalamba, Vilamba, Vikārin, Śārvarī, Plava, Śubhakṛt, Śobhana, Krodha, Viśvāvasu, Parābhava, Plavaṅga, Kīlaka, Saumya, Sādhāraṇa, Virodhakṛt, Paridhāvī, Pramādī, Ānanda, Rākṣasa, Anala, Piṅgala, Kālayukta, Siddhārtha, Raudra, Durmati, Dundubhi, Rudhirodgārin, Raktākṣa, Krodhana, Kṣayakṛt - these sixty beginning with Prabhava." Now the calculation of this: "The Śaka year multiplied by 22 and added to 4291, divided by 1875, the quotient subtracted from 60 gives the year starting from Prabhava." Write the desired Śaka year twice. Multiply one by 22, add 4291, divide by 1875. Add the quotient to the other Śaka number. Divide by 60. The remainder is the number of years elapsed from Prabhava, as stated in the Siddhānta texts. The increase and decrease of days should be understood from Sūryasiddhānta etc. They are directly observable in almanacs. The difference between the two, lunar and solar months or moon and sun, means their inequality. "In the middle" means in the middle of the 5 years. Intercalary months are months without a sankranti, as stated: "A month without a sankranti is called an intercalary month." || 14 ||

The description of years etc. was done for the accomplishment of dharma etc. prescribed for each year, therefore the sun-formed Hari who initiates that should always be worshipped, he says. Being of such a nature means revolving around the entire universe by the motion of planets, constellations etc. By the vigilant means by the attentive. "The meaning is" - the sun is meant. "The meaning is" - teaching that we should be attentive since the sun diminishes our life from his rising etc. The meaning is: By indicating the time for performing rituals prescribed for each year etc. "Bali means worship and offerings" says Viśva. Bali means worship offerings like arghya etc. Offer means give, present. "Haraṇa means giving, stealing and destroying" - here it means giving. || 15 ||

Previously "100 years for humans" was specified, so to indicate longer lifespans for ancestors and gods, he says - "This" etc. Beyond the kalpa which is the three worlds, the state, condition - "gati means path and condition" says Medinī - of those situated in higher worlds like Maharloka etc. like Sanaka and others, is indicated by lakṣaṇā as lifespan since condition is part of lifespan. The meaning is they live. Because the activity conducive to sustaining life itself is the meaning of existence. || 16 ||

Śrī Rādhā Ramaṇa dāsa Gosvāmi Viracitā Dīpanī Vyākhyā

By the time whose beginning is a paramāṇu (atom) and whose end is a saṃvatsara (year). || 13 || ** There, the solar month is based on the sun's transit; by that measure, twelve months make a saṃvatsara. The time Jupiter takes to move through one zodiac sign, its twelfth part is a Jovian month; by that measure, twelve months make a parivatsara. The month of thirty days used in interest calculations is called sāvana; by that measure, twelve months make an iḍāvatsara. The lunar month ending with the new moon; by that measure, twelve months make an anuvatsara. The nakṣatra month consisting of the moon's transit through twenty-seven constellations; by that measure, twelve months make a vatsara. Thus there are five types of years. As stated in the Jyotiṣaratnamālā: "They call the lunar month ending with the new moon cāndra, the solar month based on the sun's zodiac transit, the thirty-day month sāvana, and the nakṣatra month based on the moon's constellation transit." || From the simultaneous start of months, due to the varying separation between the sun and moon: in the first year there is a twelve-day separation, in the second a twenty-four day separation, in the third a thirty-six day separation, in the fourth a forty-eight day separation. Thus the five year names from saṃvatsara onwards are due to these five separations, as explained in another view. Among those, within the five year cycle || 14 || ** The power of causal factors like seeds, the subtle state of effects like sprouts, the manifold subtle and gross particularities of each individual, outwardly perceptible special qualities, being a great element. || 15 || ** By their own respective measures, as per the aforementioned time calculations, the movement and lifespan of others like Brahmā and Sanaka. || 16 ||

Śrīmad Vīrarāghava Vyākhyā

He explains how the sun constantly expends lifespans in this way. Graharkṣa etc. The ever-wakeful, all-pervading sun, situated in the wheel of planets, constellations and stars - planets like the moon, constellations like Aśvinī, other stars - characterized by that time cycle, traverses the world-sheath consisting of twelve zodiac signs with time beginning from a paramāṇu and ending with a saṃvatsara. || 13 || ** He states the different names of the aforementioned all-encompassing time cycle based on the motions of the sun etc. Saṃvatsara etc. The saṃvatsara is based on the sun's motion; the iḍāvatsara is based on thirty-day months from the sun's specific motion; the anuvatsara and vatsara are based on lunar and stellar motions respectively - thus it is explained. || 14 || ** Having thus described its nature as subtle, gross and all-encompassing, he states that those desiring temporality should worship the timeless supreme self in the form of the sun with the body of time as described: Ya etc. The supreme self who divides beings, transforming the karmic powers of created beings through his time-named energy, for removing the delusion of individual souls regarding dharma to be practiced at different times, expanding the threefold fruit attainable through rituals, moves in the sky as the inner controller of the sun - worship him who has the body of the sun and the nature of the five year cycle. || 15 || ** Thus having stated the nature of time, the measure of lifespan, and the worship to be done of the inner controller of the sun who regulates time, he states that for humans a day and night in heaven is called an ayana: "A hundred years is declared to be the maximum lifespan for humans." The lifespan of fathers, gods and humans within the three worlds has been stated; desiring to know the lifespan of those beyond the three worlds, Vidura asks the question. The maximum lifespan of fathers, gods and humans in their own measure is said to be a hundred years. Explain the movement and lifespan measure of others - who are they? To this he replies: They know that from a kalpa, states of kalpa would exist for the destruction of the three worlds. Or with the alternative reading vida, it means those knowers who are beyond kalpa. || 16 ||

Śrīmad Vijayadhvaja Tīrtha-kṛtā Pada Ratnāvalī Vyākhyā

Situated in the wheel of the nine planets beginning with the sun, the constellations beginning with Aśvinī, and the stars beginning with Dhruva, the ever-wakeful, all-pervading one traverses the world with time beginning from a paramāṇu and ending with a saṃvatsara, seeing the good and bad deeds of beings in the circle. The wise know his wakeful nature due to constant seeing, or due to constant motion of the great soul situated in time.

Thus it is established that Hari is primarily denoted by the word "time". || 13 ||

He says "saṃvatsara" (year) as being situated in and controlling those particular designations. The saṃvatsara is situated in the twelve solar months ending with the sankranti. He who stays in the twelfth part of the time of Jupiter's revolution through the twelve zodiac signs is called parivatsara. He who stays in the twelve months of the twenty-seven nakṣatras (lunar asterisms) is called iḍāvatsara. Hari who stays in the twelve months consisting of twelve revolutions of the tithis (lunar days) is anuvatsara. Hari who stays in the twelve months consisting of 360 days is called vatsara. The inner controller of time, Hari, is spoken of in these forms, as it is said:

"He situated in the twelfth of the nakṣatras is called iḍāvatsara. Hari in the twelve revolutions of tithis is anuvatsara.
He who stays in 360 days is vatsara. He who stays in the twelfth part of Jupiter's revolution is parivatsara.
Hari situated in the twelve solar months is saṃvatsara. Thus he is also called Time, the Supreme Lord situated in time."

This should be accepted as established in the smṛti texts. || 14 ||

He states the purpose of designating the names vatsara, etc. That inner controller of time, Hari, who by his own will-power in the form of time greatly expands the creative power consisting of the guṇas for the sake of removing man's ignorance, manifesting objects, for the knowledge of the superiority and inferiority of beings, for the performance of sacrifices, etc. - that Hari situated in time exists expanding the creative power.

He who runs in the sky, being situated in the sun, moving swiftly - to that five-fold year, the inner controller of saṃvatsara etc., offer oblations. This is the connection. Verbal roots have multiple meanings. || 15 ||

Vidura, having repeated the stated meaning, inquires about what is to be said: "Of those knowers who would exist outside the three worlds, beyond the kalpa, in Maharloka etc., describe the state of those supreme ones." This is the connection. || 16 ||

Śrīmaj Jīva Gosvāmi-kṛtā Krama Sandarbha Vyākhyā

"This is the lifespan of the pitṛs (ancestors) etc." - This means it is the time calculation mentioned earlier for each. But a hundred is only for humans. Previously, after stating the time calculation for humans, ancestors and devas, it was ascertained that a hundred years is the maximum lifespan for humans. And because Indra etc. who remain for a manvantara obtain a greater measure, "pareṣām" refers to those like Brahmā, Sanaka etc. who live beyond a kalpa, beyond Brahmā's day. || 16 || 17 ||

Śrīmad Viśvanātha Cakravarti-kṛtā Sārārtha darśinī Vyākhyā

And that lifespan of humans is taken away by the sun through rising and setting, he says. The planets like the moon, the constellations like Aśvinī, the stars - other asterisms - he who stands in their circle, their orbit, meaning he who stands in the circle of luminaries. Animeṣa (unblinking), in the form of time, vibhu (all-pervading), a portion of the Lord, revolves, moves around. || 13 ||

Since he said "standing in the circle of planets, constellations and stars", he now states the different names of the year based on the motion of the planets etc. associated with the sun: Saṃvatsara by solar motion, parivatsara by Jupiter's motion, anuvatsara by lunar motion, vatsara by the motion of constellations and stars. Since constellations and stars have no motion of their own, the motion of the circle itself is their motion. Even there, vatsara is by the twelve months of 27-day measure of the constellations. Iḍāvatsara should be understood as by the sāvana months of 30-day measure of the stars, due to their uncountable number. || 14 ||

If asked, "What is the purpose of this conception of different years?", he says it is for the accomplishment of dharma etc. prescribed for each particular year, in "yaḥ" etc. Manifesting extensively by his own power in the form of time the potency, the capacity in sprouts etc. of those to be created, he who runs in the sky, in the atmosphere - who is he? He is the sun, a particular form of the great elements, in the form of an orb of light. For what purpose does he run? For man's non-delusion, for the cessation of day and night; for those with desires, for indicating the time of karma to be performed as prescribed for saṃvatsara etc. which yields heavenly fruits etc. consisting of the guṇas; through sacrifices to be performed - to him, the promoter of the five-fold year, offer oblations, offerings of arghya etc. O righteous people! || 15 ||

Those knowers who remain even beyond this, beyond Brahmā's day, the kalpa, for a hundred years by their own measure - of those like Sanaka, Bhṛgu etc., describe their state, their lifespan. || 16 ||

Śrīmac Chukadeva-kṛta Siddhānta Pradīpaḥ

He says the divisions of time from the paramāṇu to the year are created by the sun's revolution, in "graha" etc. The planets like the moon, the constellations like Aśvinī, the stars - other asterisms - he who stands in their circle indicating time, animeṣa (unblinking), vibhu (mighty), the sun, revolves around the world, the cosmic egg consisting of twelve zodiac signs, with time from the paramāṇu up to the year. || 13 ||

Incidentally he states the different years: "saṃvatsara" etc. O Vidura, saṃvatsara is solar, parivatsara is of Jupiter, iḍāvatsara is sāvana, anuvatsara is lunar, vatsara is sidereal - thus it is spoken, it is said, due to the particular motions of the sun etc. || 14 ||

Incidentally he states the worship of the inner controller in the sun: He who divides beings, illuminating them separately in their particular forms as "this is stationary, this is moving" - that divider of beings, the Lord, the inner self in the sun, who runs in the sky, in the atmosphere - to him, the promoter of the five-fold year, offer oblations, perform worship. What does he do while running? By his own power called Time, he greatly manifests the potency of those to be created like plants etc., making it face towards its effects. For what purpose does he run? For the liberation of the person desiring liberation, and for those desiring enjoyment, expanding heavenly fruits etc. consisting of the guṇas through sacrifices. || 15 ||

Beyond the kalpa, the three worlds that last for a kalpa, externally, the knowers - of their state, describe their lifespan measure. || 16 ||

Śrīmad Vallabhācārya Viracitā Subodhinī Vyākhyā

Thus, having described the time, he concludes - graharttātārācakrastha iti. The planets like Mercury etc., the constellations like Aśvinī etc., and other stars, their circle is the zodiac. The sun present there, starting from the atomic space there, up to the end of the year, paryeti goes around again and again in a circular motion. Animiṣaḥ (ever-watchful) alert in swallowing others. Vibhuḥ (omnipotent) capable. Jagatparyeti (moves around the world) experiences.  || 13 ||

That year-soul has five names due to some reason. He states those for the purpose of worship - saṃvatsara iti. There are five types of months indicating the completion of a year. The Brāhmaṇa text states: "Twelve months make a year" and "Thirteen months make a year". Thirteen months make a year is fixed in the sidereal system, occasional in the lunar system. Twelve months make a year is fixed in the solar system, occasional in the lunar system. In the Jupiter system, prabhava etc. are fixed. The Vaiṣṇava system is also fixed. The civil system is not fixed, as it ends each day. Therefore, to establish the names like prabhava etc. related to the year, the Jupiter system is also considered. For establishing vows etc., the Vaiṣṇava month of Ekādaśī etc. is also considered, otherwise the Lord's sleep would occur in two parts of the night. The civil system is established for practical purposes, it cannot ascend to the level of śruti. Thus there are only five types of years. Among them, the lunar year is saṃvatsara, the Vaiṣṇava year is parivatsara, the solar year is iḍāvatsara, the sidereal year is anuvatsara, and the divine year is vatsara. Vidura iti is an address out of affection for understanding. Although time is one for all, not different due to repetition by different years; still it is said that only the names are five as a convention. Some say that sixty years as months, revolving in twelve ways, become five-year cycles. Prabhava etc. ending with many others are denoted by the word saṃvatsara, pramādhya etc. twelve are denoted by words ending in twelve etc. There, the regulation of months etc. is to be considered due to lack of a regulator. || 14 ||

Thus having explained the three types of time, he states worship for the sake of results - yaḥ sr̥jyeti. Stating the purpose of time, to establish worship he states the greatness - yaḥ sr̥jyeṣu in sprouts etc., increasing the power residing in seeds etc., manifesting the seed's potency through leaves, stalks etc., by his own power through the potency residing in rays etc., producing different forms every moment, manifesting the seed's power; for man's non-delusion, for detachment, he moves in heaven. By saying "moves", he indicates that not even for a moment should one remain without effort for the other world. How does this happen by moving? To this doubt he says - bhūtabheda iti. Where there is division of beings. That time divides all beings, hence it causes detachment due to fear of one's own division. Thinking that "the light that is in the sun" refers to the Lord's power, to remove that he says - kālākhyayeti. One who measures or counts is called kāla (time). There the Lord's light has entered only as illuminator, so this is the Lord's power through time. Thus having established capability in means, he establishes capability in results - guṇamayaṃ kratubhir vitanvanniti. Guṇamaya means full of bliss, heaven etc. According to the maxim "ānanda etc. belong to the chief", ānanda etc. are the qualities; heaven etc. are made of those. Sacrifices are also divisions of time, so he expands heaven etc. through sacrifices. For without a presiding deity, sacrifices etc. cannot manifest, nor can heaven manifest. That (presiding deity) is also a part of the Lord, conscious, as determined in "Heaven disappeared from the gods". Thus the Lord who is the promoter producing results, the promoter of the five-year cycle, offer oblations to such sun who is the soul of time, be the enjoyers of food earned by him and enjoyers of heaven earned by him, otherwise there would be ingratitude and enjoyment would not be accomplished. By whatever means enjoyment is accomplished or time does not devour, and he becomes pleased, that means should be adopted. Thus daily worship is established. || 15 ||

Thus having described the three types of time, in silence, having explained it as establishing lifespan, to ask about the special he says - pitr̥devamanuṣyāṇāmiti. Āyuḥ means lifespan. Param means concluded. Pareṣāṃ means of those dwelling in a kalpa. Those who are not liberated in another kalpa and continue even at the end of a kalpa, their state, the arrangement of their day and night, or their actions there, describe. Some remain only till the end of a kalpa, for them the kalpa itself is the lifespan. Those who live beyond even a kalpa, the reason for their living - vida iti. Only the knowers live for many kalpas. || 16 ||

Śrīmad Gosvāmi Śrī Puruṣottama Caraṇa Viracitaḥ Śrī Subodhinī Prakāśaḥ

In saṃvatsara iti. Considering the reason for the names saṃvatsara etc. - māsāḥ pañcavidhā ityādi. Prabhavādaya iti. Years, not months is the meaning. Vratādisiddhyarthamiti. For establishing four-month vows etc. Ekādaśyādivaiṣṇavo māsaḥ sāvanātirikt ityatra gamakamāhuḥ - anyathet yādi. The Lord's sleep is stated on the eleventh of the bright half of Āṣāḍha in the last quarter of Maitrā etc. And awakening on the eleventh of the bright half of Kārtika in the last quarter of Revatī. Thus there are four months, in the sidereal system there are five months plus five days, so there is contradiction in the number of months. In the solar-lunar system there is contradiction of dates. The Jupiter system is unconnected. So only the civil system remains. That is defined as "The interval between two sunrises is a civil day". It starts on whatever day and ends on the thirtieth, like starting on Wednesday and ending on Thursday after thirty days. So if that is taken here, the date would be contradicted. From the injunction "Wake up the sleeping one at night", the sleep would also be at night. Thus by establishing the invalidity of the civil system, Śrīdhara's arrangement of years taking the civil system is refuted. Daiva iti. Jupiter system. Or the divine system used for monthly fire sacrifices, monthly ancestral rites etc. done on each date. They state the view of astrologers - kecid ityādi. They state the undesirability of that view - tatra ityādi. In Śrīdhara's view - "When there is a sankranti on the first day of the bright fortnight, then there is simultaneous beginning of the solar and lunar months, that is saṃvatsara. By solar measure six days increase, by lunar measure six decrease. Thus with twelve days interval there is forward and backward motion of both. Thus with varying intervals five years pass, in between there are two intercalary months. Among them there is naming as parivatsara etc., then again in the sixth there is saṃvatsara", this is stated as someone's view. There also the same fault should be understood as stated before. || 14 ||

In yaḥ sr̥jyet yatra. Bhedatrayam iti. Three types based on the division of human, divine and ancestral. || 15 ||

Regarding "pitṛdeva" here. "Nirūpya viśeṣam" is one word. In the original, the meaning of this word is "calculated by counting years". There, meaning in the day-night of Kalpa. || 16 ||

Śrī Giridhara-kṛtā Bāla Prabodhinī

In this way, the sun wastes away the life of those whose minds are attached to sensory objects, as he says - "Prahe". The planets like the moon, the constellations like Aśvinī, the stars and other celestial bodies, in that wheel of time stands the unblinking, ever-vigilant, omnipresent sun, empowered by the Lord with various authorities, the regulator of time. He traverses the entire universe, from the smallest atom to the cosmic egg of twelve zodiac signs, in the span of a year. || 13 ||

He mentions the different names of the aforementioned year based on the movements of the sun and others - "Saṃvatsara". By the sun's movement it is Saṃvatsara, by Jupiter's movement Parivatsara, by months of thirty days Iḍāvatsara, by the movement of constellations Vatsara. Some say - when there is a sankranti on the first day of the bright fortnight, then the solar and lunar months begin simultaneously, that is Saṃvatsara. Then in the solar year six days increase and in the lunar year six days decrease, so after a gap of twelve days, both the moon and sun fall behind. Thus, with varying intervals, five years go by the names mentioned in order, and in between there are two intercalary months, then again the sixth is called Saṃvatsara. The address "O Vidura" indicates affection. Though one, the year is spoken of in five ways due to different causes. || 14 ||

Having thus described the nature of time, he says that to avoid being devoured by time, one should worship the Lord who propels time, abandoning attachment to sense objects - "Ya". He who divides beings, the Creator who modifies beings, the Supreme Self, who runs in the sky, in the atmosphere, propelling the sun, circling - to that one who makes the five years move, offer oblations, worship him. For what purpose does he run? With the intention of accomplishing worldly and otherworldly fruits, he shows the worldly fruit - by his power called time, creating the effect to be produced like sprouts, awakening in many ways the power of seeds etc. in that regard, meaning making them ready for effects. Those who seek the other world are also of two types - desireless and desirous. He states the fruit for the desireless person - "Puṃsa". For the person, for non-delusion, meaning for engaging in means of liberation by showing the decay of life etc. and removing attachment to sense objects. He states the fruit for those with desires - "Guṇamayam". Since the prescribed times for sacrifices etc. depend on the sun, by accomplishing those times, he expands the happiness of heaven etc. which is predominated by the qualities like sattva, by the sacrifices performed at those times. Thus in all ways he is beneficial, so not worshipping him would be ingratitude. || 15 ||

This maximum lifespan of a hundred years for fathers etc. by their own measure has been told by you. Every day the three worlds are created, so those wise ones who exist outside of that, tell me the lifespan and measure of those supreme ones. || 16 ||

Hindī Anuvāda

The sun, who is the lord of time presiding over the moon and other planets, Aśvinī and other constellations, and all the stars, constantly revolves around the entire cosmic egg of twelve zodiac signs, from the smallest atom to the year, in the span of a year. || 13 ||

This year is called Saṃvatsara, Parivatsara, Iḍāvatsara, Anuvatsara and Vatsara based on the differences in months related to the sun, Jupiter, savan, moon and constellations. || 14 ||

O Vidura! Worship the sun god who propels these five types of years by offering gifts etc. This sun god is the fire element among the five elements and by his power of time, he activates the power of seeds etc. to produce sprouts in many ways. He roams in the sky, diminishing the lifespan of men to remove their delusion, and he expands the auspicious fruits of heaven etc. obtained through sacrificial rites etc. for those with desires. || 15 ||

Vidura said - O sage! You have described the maximum lifespan of gods, ancestors and humans. Now please describe the lifespan of those wise sages like Sanaka etc. who exist outside the three worlds for longer than even a kalpa. || 16 ||

SB 3.11.9-12

 Text 9: The measuring pot for one nāḍikā, or daṇḍa, can be prepared with a six-pala-weight [fourteen ounce] pot of copper, in which a hole is bored with a gold probe weighing four māṣa and measuring four fingers long. When the pot is placed on water, the time before the water overflows in the pot is called one daṇḍa.

Text 10: It is calculated that there are four praharas, which are also called yāmas, in the day and four in the night of the human being. Similarly, fifteen days and nights are a fortnight, and there are two fortnights, white and black, in a month.

Text 11: The aggregate of two fortnights is one month, and that period is one complete day and night for the Pitā planets. Two of such months comprise one season, and six months comprise one complete movement of the sun from south to north.

Text 12: Two solar movements make one day and night of the demigods, and that combination of day and night is one complete calendar year for the human being. The human being has a duration of life of one hundred years.

Śrīdhara Svāmi-kṛtā Bhāvārtha-dīpikā Vyākhyā

Śrīdharasvāmiviracitā Bhāvārthadīpikā

He describes the unmāna of nāḍikā. Unmāna is a vessel by which measurement is done, made of 6 pala of copper. 5 guñja make a māṣa, and with those a 4-aṅgula long rod-like device is made with a hole at the base. The time it takes for a prastha of water to enter through that hole and for the vessel to become submerged is a nāḍikā. Here, if the pala and hole are larger it sinks quickly, if smaller then slowly - this is the rule for the pala and rod. || 9 ||

Two ahanī make an ahorātra (day and night). || 10 ||

Six months make an ayana in heaven - this is connected with the next verse. || 11 ||
        
They say in heaven, twelve months make a day and night of the gods. || 12 ||

Śrīvaṃśīdharakṛto Bhāvārthadīpikāprakāśaḥ

For the nāḍikā, the hole should be reinforced with a silver rod, and the same rule applies for gold as well. The measure of a prastha is also stated by Śārṅgadhara: "5 guñjā make 1 māṣaka, 16 of those make 1 karṣa, 3 karṣa make 1 pala, 4 karṣa make 1 pala. 8 pala make 1 śarāva, and 2 of those make 1 prastha." || 9 ||

Ahanī means day and night, using the rule of ekāśeṣa. O Mānada (measurer), this is an address to Śrī Maitreya and Śukadeva regarding Vidura and Parīkṣit. || 10 ||
        
The combination of the śukla and kṛṣṇa fortnights is neuter gender as it refers to the predicate. The Harivaṃśa states: "The dark fortnight is their day, the bright fortnight is night. O king, the śrāddha for the ancestors occurs during the day in the dark fortnight." Since śrāddha is prohibited at night, and the bright fortnight is night, the natural śrāddha should only be done in the dark fortnight. Those two months and six seasons are: "Hemanta, śiśira, vasanta, grīṣma, varṣā and śarad are the six seasons, starting from Mārgaśīrṣa, each lasting two months" according to astrology. || 11 ||

Divi means in the heavenly realm, ayana refers to the southern and northern paths. "That is a day and night for the gods, with the northern path as day. Auspicious and inauspicious deeds should be done then, with the southern path as night." This means auspicious and inauspicious deeds should be done in the northern and southern paths respectively. The Harivaṃśa states: "What is considered a year by human reckoning is a day and night for the gods." Regarding lifespan, astrology describes three types for humans: short, medium and long. Short is up to 30 years, medium up to 60, and above that is long. This variation in describing lifespans as shorter or longer is not contradictory to the Vedic statement "a person lives for 100 years", as the word "hundred" here does not literally mean 100 but refers to a very long time. In reality, lifespan varies slightly based on sin and merit - it decreases due to sin and increases due to merit. Sin includes prohibited acts like daytime intercourse, while merit includes prescribed acts like nighttime intercourse. The Praśna Upaniṣad states: "Those who engage in sexual union during the day lose their vital energy. It is celibacy when they engage in sexual union at night." The same principle applies in other cases as well. || 12 ||

Śrīrādhāramaṇadāsagosvāmiviracitā Dīpinī Vyākhyā

Unmāna is the means of measuring. Pala here means one karṣa. Prastha here means a vessel measuring 25 karṣa of water. The time it takes for that measure of water to enter that vessel and for the vessel to become submerged by the water's entry is called a nāḍikā. With a silver rod, the hole should be enlarged, and the same rule applies for gold. || 9 ||

Ahanī is dual number by the rule of liṅgasamavāya, hence it is explained as ahorātra. The vocative Mānada is used to draw attention to the discussion of time. || 10 ||
        
Tad refers to the predicate, like in "samaya iti" (at that time). There, the dark fortnight is day and the bright fortnight is night. Since that action is prohibited then, the six months when the sun transits Cancer etc. is the southern path. The six months when it transits Capricorn etc. is the northern path. As Rāmadeva Jña states: "The northern and southern paths are determined by Capricorn and Cancer." || 11 ||

They say in heaven a day and night is: the northern path is day and the southern path is night. || 12 ||

Śrīmadvīrarāghavavyākhyā

To explain the measure of a nāḍikā, since the daily variations cannot be counted, he describes the characteristics of a prastha. A vessel measuring 12.5 pala is called unmāna as it is used for measuring. Some say it is made of 6 pala of copper. 5 guñja make a māṣa, and with those a 4-aṅgula long needle-like device is made with a hole at the base. The time it takes for a prastha of water to enter through that hole and for the vessel called prastha to become submerged when placed in water is a nāḍikā. A prastha vessel made of 12.5 pala of gold with a 4-aṅgula needle made of 4 māṣa of gold with a hole, which sinks when filled with a prastha measure of water - the time of its sinking is a nāḍikā. If the pala and hole are larger it sinks quickly, if smaller then slowly - this is the rule for the pala and needle. || 9 ||

Four and four make eight yāma. Both ahanī (day and night) make an ahorātra for mortals. Fifteen days make the bright fortnight, and another fifteen days the dark fortnight. || 10 ||

O Mānada! Vidura, the combination of these bright and dark fortnights is one month for humans. For the ancestors: that aforementioned month is a day and night for the ancestors. Tad is neuter gender as either the subject or predicate can take that gender when connected. Those two aforementioned months make a season for humans. Six months make an ayana, which is of two types - southern and northern, each lasting six months. || 11 ||

He describes the special case for the gods: The two ayana, southern and northern, in heaven (svarga) are called a day and night for the gods. The twelve months mentioned earlier for humans are remembered as twelve years. Incidentally, he also states the lifespan for humans as 100 years. The meaning is clear. "For humans" is representative - others also have a lifespan of 100 years according to their own measure. || 12 ||

Śrī Vaṃśīdhara-kṛtā Bhāvārtha-dīpikā Prakāśa Vyākhyā

For the nāḍikā, the hole should be reinforced with a silver rod, and the same rule applies for gold as well. The measure of a prastha is also stated by Śārṅgadhara: "5 guñjā make 1 māṣaka, 16 of those make 1 karṣa, 3 karṣa make 1 pala, 4 karṣa make 1 pala. 8 pala make 1 śarāva, and 2 of those make 1 prastha." || 9 ||

Ahanī means day and night, using the rule of ekāśeṣa. O Mānada (measurer), this is an address to Śrī Maitreya and Śukadeva regarding Vidura and Parīkṣit. || 10 ||
        
The combination of the śukla and kṛṣṇa fortnights is neuter gender as it refers to the predicate. The Harivaṃśa states: "The dark fortnight is their day, the bright fortnight is night. O king, the śrāddha for the ancestors occurs during the day in the dark fortnight." Since śrāddha is prohibited at night, and the bright fortnight is night, the natural śrāddha should only be done in the dark fortnight. Those two months and six seasons are: "Hemanta, śiśira, vasanta, grīṣma, varṣā and śarad are the six seasons, starting from Mārgaśīrṣa, each lasting two months" according to astrology. || 11 ||

Divi means in the heavenly realm, ayana refers to the southern and northern paths. "That is a day and night for the gods, with the northern path as day. Auspicious and inauspicious deeds should be done then, with the southern path as night." This means auspicious and inauspicious deeds should be done in the northern and southern paths respectively. The Harivaṃśa states: "What is considered a year by human reckoning is a day and night for the gods." Regarding lifespan, astrology describes three types for humans: short, medium and long. Short is up to 30 years, medium up to 60, and above that is long. This variation in describing lifespans as shorter or longer is not contradictory to the Vedic statement "a person lives for 100 years", as the word "hundred" here does not literally mean 100 but refers to a very long time. In reality, lifespan varies slightly based on sin and merit - it decreases due to sin and increases due to merit. Sin includes prohibited acts like daytime intercourse, while merit includes prescribed acts like nighttime intercourse. The Praśna Upaniṣad states: "Those who engage in sexual union during the day lose their vital energy. It is celibacy when they engage in sexual union at night." The same principle applies in other cases as well. || 12 ||

Śrī Rādhā Ramaṇa dāsa Gosvāmi Viracitā Dīpanī Vyākhyā

Unmāna is the means of measuring. Pala here means one karṣa. Prastha here means a vessel measuring 25 karṣa of water. The time it takes for that measure of water to enter that vessel and for the vessel to become submerged by the water's entry is called a nāḍikā. With a silver rod, the hole should be enlarged, and the same rule applies for gold. || 9 ||

Ahanī is dual number by the rule of liṅgasamavāya, hence it is explained as ahorātra. The vocative Mānada is used to draw attention to the discussion of time. || 10 ||
        
Tad refers to the predicate, like in "samaya iti" (at that time). There, the dark fortnight is day and the bright fortnight is night. Since that action is prohibited then, the six months when the sun transits Cancer etc. is the southern path. The six months when it transits Capricorn etc. is the northern path. As Rāmadeva Jña states: "The northern and southern paths are determined by Capricorn and Cancer." || 11 ||

They say in heaven a day and night is: the northern path is day and the southern path is night. || 12 ||

Śrīmad Vīrarāghava Vyākhyā

To explain the measure of a nāḍikā, since the daily variations cannot be counted, he describes the characteristics of a prastha. A vessel measuring 12.5 pala is called unmāna as it is used for measuring. Some say it is made of 6 pala of copper. 5 guñja make a māṣa, and with those a 4-aṅgula long needle-like device is made with a hole at the base. The time it takes for a prastha of water to enter through that hole and for the vessel called prastha to become submerged when placed in water is a nāḍikā. A prastha vessel made of 12.5 pala of gold with a 4-aṅgula needle made of 4 māṣa of gold with a hole, which sinks when filled with a prastha measure of water - the time of its sinking is a nāḍikā. If the pala and hole are larger it sinks quickly, if smaller then slowly - this is the rule for the pala and needle. || 9 ||

Four and four make eight yāma. Both ahanī (day and night) make an ahorātra for mortals. Fifteen days make the bright fortnight, and another fifteen days the dark fortnight. || 10 ||

O Mānada! Vidura, the combination of these bright and dark fortnights is one month for humans. For the ancestors: that aforementioned month is a day and night for the ancestors. Tad is neuter gender as either the subject or predicate can take that gender when connected. Those two aforementioned months make a season for humans. Six months make an ayana, which is of two types - southern and northern, each lasting six months. || 11 ||

He describes the special case for the gods: The two ayana, southern and northern, in heaven (svarga) are called a day and night for the gods. The twelve months mentioned earlier for humans are remembered as twelve years. Incidentally, he also states the lifespan for humans as 100 years. The meaning is clear. "For humans" is representative - others also have a lifespan of 100 years according to their own measure. || 12 ||

Śrīmad Vijayadhvaja Tīrtha-kṛtā Pada Ratnāvalī Vyākhyā

He describes the characteristics of the nāḍikā (nadika) vessel for measuring time. Dvādaśeti. A vessel with an excellent measure made of six palas, which is dvādaśārdha-pala (dvadashardha-pala) in measure, with an aperture made of four golden māṣas (mashas) four aṅgulas (angulas) long - such a nāḍī (nadi) vessel is constructed. The time it takes for a prastha of water placed in it to be drunk and submerged is called a nāḍikā (nadika).

This means: Four kākiṇis (kakinis) make one-twentieth. When four of these are combined with four māṣas (mashas) four aṅgulas (angulas) long, whatever circumference is formed, a nāḍī (nadi) vessel of six palas is made with four such apertures. It drinks water that is free from extreme cold, impurities etc., clear, of even temperature, constantly heated by the sun's rays, flowing, or from Prayāga (Prayaga) in spring. That duration is called a nāḍikā (nadika). As it is said:

"Four kākiṇis (kakinis) are called one-twentieth. They say a kṛṣṇala (krishnala) is thus established. Four of those make a māṣa (masha).

When four māṣas (mashas) four aṅgulas (angulas) long are made, an aperture is made as wide as their circumference.

For a prastha nāḍī (nadi) vessel of six palas in pure water. With excess weight of water, it will fill quickly.

With extreme cold and impurities, it fills only with intoxication. Therefore, in spring and with water from Prayāga (Prayaga),

The purity of the nāḍī (nadi) should be tested, otherwise it is not possible. With clear, evenly warm water constantly heated by the sun's rays,

Time measurement should always be done with flowing water." || 9 ||

Both days are a day and night. When "days" is said, it establishes two days but not night, hence "both" is used, as it is said that when there is a word for both, it applies even in the dual. || 10 ||

With reference to the later gender, "that" is said - that human month is a day and night for the ancestors. Two such months are a season. The six seasons are called the southern and northern courses. || 11 ||

In heaven, for the gods, the two courses are days. Day and night - since there is no night activity, even night is called "day", hence "days" is said. Twelve human months are a year. || 12 ||

Śrīmaj Jīva Gosvāmi-kṛtā Krama Sandarbha Vyākhyā

The mention of graharṣa (graharkṣa) refers only to the movement of the sun, not to the end of time, as the year is not of utmost importance. || 12 - 15 ||

Śrīmad Viśvanātha Cakravarti-kṛtā Sārārtha darśinī Vyākhyā

It describes the measurement of nāḍikā (hour). The measurement instrument by which it is measured is a vessel made of six palas of copper. A pala is equal to 64 māṣas. A māṣa is equal to five guñjās. With four of these, a four-aṅgula long rod-like instrument is made with a hole at the base. The time it takes for a prastha of water to enter through that hole and submerge the vessel is called a nāḍikā. Here, if the pala and hole are larger, it would sink quickly, and if smaller, it would sink slowly. Hence there are rules for the pala and rod, and even for the hole reinforcement with silver etc., and also rules for gold. || 9 || * The two ahanī are day and night. || 10 || * * Those two ayanas in the sky are the day and night of the gods, twelve (months). || 11 || * * The months (make) a year. || 12 ||

Śrīmac Chukadeva-kṛta Siddhānta Pradīpaḥ

A vessel measuring six and a half palas, made of copper, by which it is measured, is the measuring instrument. It has a hole made at the base with four golden māṣas in the form of a four-aṅgula long needle. The time it takes for a prastha of water to submerge through that hole is called a nāḍikā. || 9 || * * Four and four, eight yāmas (make) both ahanī, day and night. || 10 || * * Two months (make) a season, six months (make) an ayana, connected with divi (sky) in the next (verse). || 11 || * * In the sky, in the world of gods, they call the two ayanas ahanī. Twelve months are known as a year. || 12 ||

Śrīmad Vallabhācārya Viracitā Subodhinī Vyākhyā

To explain this, it describes the measurement - dvādaśārdhapalonmānam. Dvādaśārdha means six. When both are known, lesser and greater amounts are understood, so to know both equally, dvādaśārdhatā is mentioned. A pala is four suvarṇas. A suvarṇa is sixteen māṣas. A māṣa is five guñjās. A guñjā is three barley grains. After making a vessel with six and a half palas of copper, a hole should be made in the middle with four golden rods combined. Those golden māṣas are four aṅgulas long, four times the length of 34 sesame seeds. Hence it says - with four golden māṣas of four aṅgulas. When a prastha of water enters and submerges it, that is the time. || 9 || * * After explaining the measurement of nāḍikā, it now explains the measurement of time above that - four yāmas. Four yāmas make a day, and again four yāmas make a night, hence it is stated twice. Ahanī means day and night. Ubhe (both) is to exclude repetition. Thus both combined make one day. Fifteen days make a fortnight. That fortnight is of two types - bright and dark. The bright fortnight has the moon visible at the beginning of night, the dark fortnight has moonlight visible in this region at the beginning of night. The address mānada is used because the disciple understands the words just by hearing. Fifteen days refers to the phases. || 10 || * * Tayoḥ samuccaya means the combination of those two is a month. It is of both types, so both are intended. For the pitṛs (ancestors), that is their day and night. When the moon enters the fifteen phases, it is night, due to obstruction by the moon. When it departs from there, it is day. The pitṛs consider only the water-based obstruction of the sun, not the earth-based one. Just as for us the day-night arrangement is based on sunrise and sunset whether the moon is present or not, similarly for them the sun's position is irrelevant and only the moon's entering and exiting the phases is relevant. Entering is the origin of a phase, exiting is the destruction of a phase. Exiting is day, so on new moon day is their eating time, and on full moon they sleep satisfied - this is their day-night arrangement. Thus two months make a season, six months make an ayana, twelve months make a year. So two ayanas make a year. Their names are southern and northern. Southern ayana and northern ayana. Those two ayanas in the sky (heaven) they call ahanī. Southern ayana is night, northern ayana is day. Those in heaven consider only light-based obstruction of the sun, not moon-based or earth-based. There the stars are referred to by the word light. There, Uttarāṣāḍhā is the dawn of the northern ayana day. When its quarter is used up, the sun rises, then it is Makara. Up to three quarters of Punarvasu is day. These stars are arranged in a garland-like manner facing each other. Those in the rear portion or front portion see half and do not see half. Just as in a double cloth they see only half the pattern from one side, similarly for the gods also from a quarter of Punarvasu to Uttarāṣāḍhā the stars are obstructing. All these face upwards and are arranged like a garland. So when the southern ayana stars are with the sun, both sets of stars face downwards and the sun is not seen at all. Prāhuḥ indicates this is authoritative. Twelve months make a year. Here also smṛta indicates this is authoritative. A hundred years is the maximum lifespan of humans, without increase or decrease. With one year, one lifespan is used up by time, as per the śruti "a person has a hundred-year lifespan". But when dharma is practiced, the use of lifespan by time is blocked, then one lives even more than a hundred years. When sin is committed, sin uses up half the lifespan, and time the other half; if that sin is equal to time. If it is excessive, there is greater decrease of lifespan. In case of excessive sin causing many births, from the moment of seed-fall up to twenty-five years, various wombs are obtained, this does not violate the śruti of hundred-year lifespan. Nirūpitam indicates this is authoritative. || 12 ||

Śrīmad Gosvāmi Śrī Puruṣottama Caraṇa Viracitaḥ Śrī Subodhinī Prakāśaḥ

Regarding "yāmā". It means with the intention of kalā. Considering the increase or decrease of the lunar day by calculation, apprehending the obstruction of the fifteen-day fortnight, this is said for its resolution. Thus, even with the increase or decrease due to the Sun's obstruction by the Earth etc., in terms of kalā calculation, it always means fifteen days uniformly. || 10 || * It means the combination of those two. That is twofold etc. According to the śruti: "The new moon indeed observes the months" and "The full moon indeed observes the months". The twofold nature here does not refer to the distinction between bright and dark fortnights, but rather as stated in the fifth canto regarding the Sun: "It consumes twelve months known as zodiac signs, parts of the year, a month is two fortnights, day and night, thus they indicate two and a quarter constellations." By this, two fortnights and a month are by lunar measure, and that same two fortnights are day and night for the ancestors. But by solar calculation, two and a quarter constellations are said to be a month. Further on, discussing the Moon: "Expanding with the kalās of the immortals and waning with the kalās of the ancestors, extending the days and nights with the waxing and waning fortnights." From this statement, both the solar and lunar months are accepted. Thus it becomes twofold. This twofold nature refers to the ancestors' day and night (1) by accepting the fifteen-day fortnight, and the gods' day and night by accepting the solar solstice, as intended by Maitreya who speaks of both. They consider the simultaneous arrangement of both day and night - regarding the Moon etc. It enters means: "He rises from the waters, and enters the waters again" according to the śruti. The Sun enters those watery ones. Now, due to the possibility of obstruction by the Earth for those above (stationed), how is this so? To address this expectation, they explain - The ancestors indeed etc. Created by water means: "The Moon indeed is the abode of waters" according to the śruti, because of its watery nature, it is created by that. Thus means: Because in the original text the lunar month, which is a combination of bright and dark fortnights, is described as the ancestors' day and night, not others. Here it appears thus: In Siddhāntaśiromaṇi, Bhāskarācārya states: "The ancestors residing in the upper part of the Moon consider the lower part as nectar-rayed. They see the Sun from their heads at new moon, hence it is split for them. Due to being at half the distance, the lower part of the Moon is not visible, therefore midnight is indeed at full moon. In the dark fortnight, the Sun rises in half a fortnight, in the bright fortnight it sets, thus it is logically established." Thus, accepting the ancestral world to be above the lunar orbit, at new moon when the Sun and Moon are in the same zodiac sign, it is midday. The zodiac circle consists of twelve signs, half of that is six signs. Due to that much distance, when the Moon is at its lowest, obstructed by it, the Sun is not visible. Then it becomes complete night. When the Moon moves forward, then they see the Sun partially obscured from below, so even though the Sun exists, it is night. When there is a nine-sign distance, then the Sun comes to a place equal to that world, then day begins, and similarly in the evening. This is also intended here. If this differs from the cosmology of the fifth canto, with the Moon's position also being low, everything is logically consistent. This much is the main difference. While they accept only the intervening space, here [?] the existence there is through rays. Regarding "The solstices and the days" here. Created by light means: Just as when a forest fire blazes in the eastern direction in the morning, the sunrise is not perceived by one facing east in the west, due to the obstruction by the nearby fire's light from the distant Sun, similarly is the meaning. They consider means: They consider it as establishing night. They explain the stated method by explaining the manner of the constellations' position - These etc. As etc. means: Those in the back see the front part, and those in front see the back part. Obstructing means: Obstructing the Sun. Facing upwards means: Not facing upwards like an inverted pot, but like a tree. Facing downwards means: Situated low. Here this is apparent: The śruti states "The constellations are indeed the homes of the gods." Although those are fixed in Śiśumāra, they appear to rotate due to its rotation, so the gods residing there are also like that. That is why in the fifth canto, in praise of Dhruva's abode, it is said: "Where the great devotee Dhruva, son of Uttānapāda, is respectfully circumambulated on the right by Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Kaśyapa, and Dharma, who are of equal duration." There, the gods are situated in the northern constellations, so when the Sun is positioned there, it is seen low due to proximity, as the Sun's orbit is lower than the constellation's orbit. But when the Sun is positioned in the southern constellations, the Sun being extremely far and lower than both types of constellations is not visible at all. During the day, although it is somewhat obscured for some time like clouds due to the daily rotation of Śiśumāra and the Moon's rotation, they do not consider that obstruction as establishing night, because light exists due to the Sun's proximity. This has been explained to refute those astronomers who consider the day-night division of the gods according to the Purāṇas to be based merely on ignorance without reasoning. Now, how is a hundred years the maximum lifespan, by which there is no contradiction with śruti, when longer lifespans are remembered in Kṛta etc. and sometimes seen even now? To explain this, they say - With one etc. The enjoyment of life is obstructed by time means: The enjoyment of life effected by time is obstructed by dharma. || 11 || 12 ||

Śrī Giridhara-kṛtā Bāla Prabodhinī

The measure of nāḍikā is explained as follows: Three barley grains make one guñjā, five guñjās make one māṣa, sixteen māṣas make one suvarṇa, four suvarṇas make one pala. A vessel called unmāna is made of six palas of copper, capable of holding one prastha of water. A hole is made at the bottom using a four-finger long needle made of four gold māṣas. The time it takes for the vessel to fill with one prastha of water through this hole and sink in water is called one nāḍikā. If the hole or weight is increased, it would sink faster, and if decreased, it would sink slower. This is the rule for the weight and needle, and it should be understood that a silver needle can be used to adjust the hole size. [9]

Four and four, eight yāmas make day and night for mortals. Four yāmas make a day and four yāmas make a night. To avoid confusion about repetition, it is said "both". Thus, both together make one day. Fifteen such days make a fortnight (pakṣa), which is of two types: śukla (bright) and kṛṣṇa (dark). The one in which the moon's phase increases is śukla, and where it decreases is kṛṣṇa. Addressing with affection, it says "O respected one". [10]

The combination of these śukla pakṣa and kṛṣṇa pakṣa is one month for humans. For the ancestors (pitṛs), it is specified: That aforementioned month is a day and night for the ancestors, where the kṛṣṇa pakṣa is day and śukla pakṣa is night. Those two aforementioned months make one season (ṛtu) for humans. Six months make one ayana, which is of two types: southern (dakṣiṇa) and northern (uttara). This connects with "in heaven" in the next verse. [11]

In heaven (divi), the two ayanas, dakṣiṇāyana and uttarāyana, are said to be day and night for the gods. Uttarāyana is day, dakṣiṇāyana is night. Twelve months are remembered as one year (saṃvatsara) for humans. Incidentally, the lifespan is mentioned: One hundred years. This also implies ancestors, gods, etc. A hundred years of one's own measure is determined as the highest complete lifespan, as stated in the śruti "A person's life is indeed a hundred years". One should not doubt why death is seen in the middle or life is seen and heard beyond that. Death in the middle is due to the depletion of lifespan for those of bad conduct. Hence the qualification "highest", and due to good conduct and being an adhikārin, life can be even longer according to the maxim "Those who are qualified remain as long as their qualification". This should be understood from the respective contexts. [12]

Hindī Anuvāda

A vessel should be made of six (measures of) copper that can hold one prastha of water. A four-finger long needle made of four māṣas of gold should be used to make a hole in the bottom of this vessel and it should be placed in water. The time it takes for one prastha of water to fill the vessel and for the vessel to sink in water is called one 'nāḍikā'. [9]

O Vidura! Four and four praharas make 'day' and 'night' for humans, and fifteen days and nights make one fortnight (pakṣa), which is considered to be of two types: śukla and kṛṣṇa. [10]

Combining these two fortnights makes one 'month', which is one day and night for the ancestors. Two months make one 'season' (ṛtu), and six months make one 'ayana'. Ayana is of two types: uttarāyana and dakṣiṇāyana. [11]

These two ayanas together make one day and night for the gods, and in the human world, these are called a 'year' or twelve months. The highest lifespan of a human is said to be one hundred such years. [12]

SB 3.11.5-8

 Text 5: The division of gross time is calculated as follows: two atoms make one double atom, and three double atoms make one hexatom. This hexatom is visible in the sunshine which enters through the holes of a window screen. One can clearly see that the hexatom goes up towards the sky.

Text 6: The time duration needed for the integration of three trasareṇus is called a truṭi, and one hundred truṭis make one vedha. Three vedhas make one lava.

Text 7: The duration of time of three lavas is equal to one nimeṣa, the combination of three nimeṣas makes one kṣaṇa, five kṣaṇas combined together make one kāṣṭhā, and fifteen kāṣṭhās make one laghu.

Text 8: Fifteen laghus make one nāḍikā, which is also called a daṇḍa. Two daṇḍas make one muhūrta, and six or seven daṇḍas make one fourth of a day or night, according to human calculation.

Śrīdhara Svāmi-kṛtā Bhāvārtha-dīpikā Vyākhyā

Now he describes the intermediate time state with the characteristics of dvyaṇuka (dyad) etc. He says that two paramāṇus (atoms) would be an aṇu (molecule), and three aṇus (molecules) would be a trasareṇu (mote), which is perceptible. Jālārka etc. What is perceived in the sun's rays entering through a window, moving in the sky due to its extreme lightness, not falling to the ground. In another reading, "moving in the sky, not perceived on the ground" ॥ 5 ॥

One hundred parts of a truṭi (instant) form a vedha (pierce) ॥ 6 ॥

Three nimeṣas (blinks) are said to be a kṣaṇa (moment), fifteen kāṣṭhās (short periods) make one laghu (brief time) ॥ 7 ॥

Six or seven nāḍikās (hours) make a prahara (watch), which is a yāma (quarter) or fourth part of a day or night. It should be understood that in decrease there are six, in increase seven, excluding the two muhūrtas (48 minutes each) of twilight. The word "or" here also indicates irregularity. Because it's impossible to count their variations daily ॥ 8 ॥

Śrī Vaṃśīdhara-kṛtā Bhāvārtha-dīpikā Prakāśa Vyākhyā

That trasareṇu (mote), in the alternative reading "moving in the sky, not on the ground", implies the perceptibility of the trasareṇu and the imperceptibility of aṇu and paramāṇu for ordinary humans, but for yogis even those two are perceptible. As stated: "When the sun is seen through a lattice, the tiny dust visible, one-sixth of that is called a paramāṇu." This reveals the nature of the perceived aṇu and paramāṇu. Thus, what is the proof for the existence of aṇu and paramāṇu? How is the trasareṇu itself? The rule everywhere is that without the abundance and grossness of parts, the whole is not visible. Here, for the trasareṇu as the whole, three gross aṇus are imagined as parts, not paramāṇus due to their lack of grossness. Grossness is being composed of multiple entities, so the grossness of an aṇu is not possible without a paramāṇu, thus proving the paramāṇu. The visibility of a trasareṇu is not possible without the grossness of its parts, thus proving the aṇu. Similarly, for the grossness of an aṇu, only the duality of paramāṇus is imagined, not triplicity or quaternity, etc., according to the principle of "first occurrence". Just as in "One should not sacrifice kapinjala birds", others also accept only the first occurring triplicity for abundance, the same should be understood here ॥ 5 ॥

A truṭi is made of three trasareṇus. As stated in the Sūryasiddhānta: "When a lotus petal is pierced by a needle, that time is called a truṭi." The time it takes to pierce a lotus flower petal is a truṭi. A vedha would be made of a hundred truṭis ॥ 6 ॥

A trilava (three lavas) is that which contains three lavas ॥ 7 ॥

A nāḍikā is a daṇḍa (rod), as per the lexicon: "A ghaṭī, daṇḍa, and nāḍikā are the same." In decrease, when day and night are shorter, it measures twenty-four ghaṭīs, in increase twenty-eight ghaṭīs. The calculation of yāmas should be done excluding two twilight muhūrtas, one in the morning and one in the evening, even with the omission of two muhūrtas. The rule of seven or six nāḍikās for a prahara is not fixed, but sometimes less and sometimes more. If asked when this occurs, the answer is that it's impossible to count their variations daily ॥ 8 ॥

Śrī Rādhā Ramaṇa dāsa Gosvāmi Viracitā Dīpanī Vyākhyā

The aṇu, dvyaṇuka (dyad) entity, as well as the time that measures it, and thus that entity, those times as examples and exemplified, with one name, should be explained as a general description in this verse. "Three aṇus" means three tryaṇukas (triads). In the alternative reading "not on the ground", avagata means "known" ॥ 5 ॥

A trasareṇu occupies or pervades a triple space. Its definition is as in the Sūryasiddhānta: "When a lotus petal is pierced by a needle, that is called a truṭi." The meaning is: when a single lotus petal is pierced or split by a needle, that much time is called a truṭi. Bhāgāḥ means parts of time ॥ 6 ॥

With the addition of the word "iti", kṣaṇa should be read in the singular ॥ 7 ॥

Even with the omission of two muhūrtas, "their variations" refers to the variations of praharas caused by palas and vipalas ॥ 8 ॥

Śrīmad Vīrarāghava Vyākhyā

Having thus established decrease and increase, he explains the states delimited by specific intermediate times. With "Two aṇus" etc., up to "southern and northern in the sky", he's not using Vaiśeṣika terminology, but rather applying words defined by them for objects to parts of time, which he will explain from paramāṇu to the end of the year. The meaning is: one time would be an aṇu made of two paramāṇus. One time would be a trasareṇu made of three aṇus. Since it's impossible to describe times and their delimiters that are extremely subtle compared to the time called trasareṇu, he describes the delimiter of the time called trasareṇu. With "Jālārka" etc. The dust seen in sunbeams coming through a lattice window, moving in the sky, not falling to the ground, that is a trasareṇu time. There's a metaphorical co-reference between the delimited time and the delimited dust particle. The meaning is: the time delimited by the slight movement of the dust particle perceived in the lattice sunbeam is called a trasareṇu ॥ 5 ॥

The time that consumes (bhuṅkte) three trasareṇu-sized particles is called truṭi. It means that three trasareṇu time periods equal one truṭi. That truṭi is one-hundredth part of the time called vedha. The time that is one hundred times that, limited by piercing one leaf, is called lava. It means that one lava time is remembered as three of those vedhas. || 6 ||

He says three lavas make one nimeṣa. Nimeṣa means: The vedha is one-hundredth part, as the word śata (hundred) in śruti has multiple meanings. In that case, it would agree with Śaunaka's statement: "O king, one kṣaṇa is one-thousandth part of a nimeṣa. And by ten thousand parts of that, there is growth in humans."

If asked how such time divisions are known: In one kṣaṇa, lightning and other phenomena spread over many yojanas. In one kṣaṇa, the Sun's chariot is remembered to travel many yojanas. Even in one yojana of space, it is not possible to count all the assembled hairs and mustard seeds. Therefore, just like hairs etc., time parts limited by spreading over a measured space are understood like one kṣaṇa and are countable. Thus it is established that those three nimeṣas would be one kṣaṇa. They know five kṣaṇas as one kāṣṭhā. Fifteen kāṣṭhās make one laghu, which is one time unit called laghu. || 7 ||

Fifteen laghus are traditionally known as one nāḍikā. Two of those nāḍikās make one muhūrta. Six or seven nāḍikās make one prahara, which is also called yāma - the fourth part of a day and night. It should be known that in decrease there are six, in increase seven, excluding the two muhūrtas of twilight. Here also the word 'or' indicates lack of fixed rule. "Of humans" indicates this is human measure. || 8 ||

Śrīmad Vijayadhvaja Tīrtha-kṛtā Pada Ratnāvalī Vyākhyā

Now he states the names of the time parts between paramāṇu and paramahat by adding up numbers. Two paramāṇus: Two paramāṇus combined would be the time called dvyaṇuka. The same should be understood for what follows. Three dvyaṇukas combined make a trasareṇu, a tryaṇuka time. This is perceptible to yogis, as he says "In a lattice": A lattice is a window. The sun's ray appearing there, moving through space, becomes visible to the eye. The meaning is it goes after becoming visible. Everywhere here it should be understood that the infinite nature characterized by existence, consciousness and bliss, called Ananta, experiences itself as the inner controller of those respective time parts, as denoted by those respective words, and as the instigator of the substances existing in those respective times. Hence it is said to be the enjoyer of everything everywhere. || 5 ||

The division, sharing of those three truṭis is tri-bhāga. It is said that three truṭis make one vedha. || 6 ||
        
Nimeṣas are known by snapping fingers. Those kāṣṭhās are fifteen laghus. || 7 ||
        
Fifteen laghus make a nāḍikā. They know two nāḍikās as one muhūrta. Six nāḍikās make a prahara, seven nāḍikās a yāma. There is an option due to increase or decrease based on the difference in zodiac signs indicated by the sun's motion. || 8 ||


Śrīmaj Jīva Gosvāmi-kṛtā Krama Sandarbha Vyākhyā

The verse "aṇu" etc. is a general statement about substance and time, and also due to having the same name through example and exemplified relationship. || 5-7 ||

"Six or seven": The word 'or' there combines all the intervals. || 8-11 ||

Śrīmad Viśvanātha Cakravarti-kṛtā Sārārtha darśinī Vyākhyā

Two paramāṇus would be an aṇu. Three aṇus make a trasareṇu. He says that is perceptible: "jālārka" means in sun rays entering through a window, moving through space due to extreme lightness, it is perceived, known by the eye. Or if the reading is "na tu gām pṛthvīm agāt", the meaning is it moves in that way but does not go to earth.

If asked what indicates the existence of aṇu and paramāṇu here, the answer is trasareṇu itself. That is, there is a rule everywhere that without abundance of large parts, the whole is not visible. Here for trasareṇu as the whole, only three large aṇus should be imagined as parts, not paramāṇus due to their lack of largeness. Largeness means being composed of multiple things, so the largeness of an aṇu is not possible without a paramāṇu. Thus paramāṇu is established. The visibility of trasareṇu is not possible without largeness of parts, thus aṇu is established.

Similarly, only two paramāṇus are imagined for the largeness of an aṇu, not three or four etc., due to the principle of first occurrence being authoritative. Just as in "One should not offer kapiñjala birds", only three aṇus are imagined for abundance, as that is suitable. "Trasareṇu trika" means a truṭi is made of three trasareṇus. The Sūryasiddhānta says: "When a lotus petal is pierced by a needle, that is called a truṭi." The meaning is: The time it takes to pierce a lotus flower petal is a truṭi. || 5 ||

The meaning is: That which has one hundred parts in the form of truṭis is a vedha. Three of those make a lava. || 6 ||

Those nimeṣas are traditionally stated. Those are kāṣṭhās. || 7 ||

A nāḍikā is a daṇḍa. Two of those nāḍikās. Six or seven nāḍikās make a prahara, which is also called a yāma. It is the fourth part of a day and night. In decrease there are six, in increase there are seven. It should be known excluding the two ghaṭikās of twilight. The word 'or' there also indicates lack of fixed rule, as it is impossible to count those differences every day. || 8 ||


Śrīmac Chukadeva-kṛta Siddhānta Pradīpaḥ

Now he states the intermediate time divisions, starting with defining the first substances. "Aṇu" etc.: Two paramāṇus would be an aṇu. Three aṇus make a trasareṇu. He says that is perceptible: "jālārka" etc. means perceived, moving only through space, not going to earth. || 5 ||

A vedha has one hundred parts, one hundred truṭis. By those vedhas. || 6 ||

Those kāṣṭhās are fifteen laghus. || 7 ||

Two of those nāḍikās make a muhūrta. Six or seven nāḍikās make a prahara, which is also called a yāma. This means: Excluding the two muhūrtas of twilight and twilight portion, in decrease the fourth part of day and night consists of six nāḍikās, in increase it consists of seven nāḍikās as a yāma. This too is stated from a gross perspective, as a fixed rule is not possible. || 8 ||

Śrīmad Vallabhācārya Viracitā Subodhinī Vyākhyā

Thus, having described the beginning and end times, he now describes the middle time - aṇuddo paramāṇū syāt. The path by which the sun's chariot wheel travels, the time it takes to cross a paramāṇu's space on that path is a paramāṇu-kāla. The time it takes to cross the space of two paramāṇus is an aṇu-kāla. Similarly for the rest. The time it takes to cross the entire sky circle of twelve zodiac signs is the supreme great year (saṃvatsara). Three aṇus make a trasareṇu. The authority for this is the memory of the great ones. But that is perceptible, as he says - jalārkasyavagata. It is perceived in sunbeams entering through a window. He states two indicators of perception - khamevānu'patann gām. Those trasareṇus do not fall to the ground, but fly upwards in that very ray towards the sky. The singular is used to exclude intermediate distinctions. || 5 ||

The time of three trasareṇus is called a truṭi. That very truṭi is one-hundredth of a vedha, and one-hundredth is a bhāga. The word "hundred" here does not mean unlimited, as indicated by the word "tu". The meaning is that one hundred truṭis make one vedha. Three vedhas make a lava. A nimeṣa is three lavas. Three nimeṣas make a kṣaṇa. Five kṣaṇas make a kāṣṭhā. Fifteen laghus make a nāḍikā. Two nāḍikās make a muhūrta. Six or seven nāḍikās make a prahara. For humans (nṛṇām). Since a nāḍikā is coarser compared to a ghaṭikā, somehow a long night or day, its fourth part consisting of seven nāḍīs, but six nāḍīs. Thus there are fifty-two nāḍikās in a day and night. Sixty nāḍikās are calculated in this way here. But those who speak leaving out the two twilights should consider the statement "four yāmas, four yāmas". Now if the morning twilight is in the day and the evening twilight in the night, four ghaṭikās are not counted. Because there is no purpose in such counting. If it is for dharma in the middle excluding the twilight portions? Even so, there is no purpose in omitting it as it determines lifespan. If dharma increases lifespan then? At other times doing dharma would not increase lifespan. And there is contradiction with "rising and setting". It cannot be that the earlier twilight time is for the gods and the later for the asuras based on the phrase "for humans". Even so, it need not be counted for measuring lifespan. It is not appropriate to state it that way just for dharma. Moreover, if the authority to be stated later were only for the current nāḍī measure, then such assumption would be proper, but this measure increases. || 6 || 7 || 8 ||

Śrīmad Gosvāmi Śrī Puruṣottama Caraṇa Viracitaḥ Śrī Subodhinī Prakāśaḥ

In "aṇu" etc. Saṃvatsarātmaka means a human year. In "aṇuḍhau", "trasareṇustraya" etc. there is no joining of two or three, as that is prevented by "sadā asaṃyutaḥ", but indivisibility should be understood as being able to withstand division up to that point. || 5 ||

In "te dve muhūrte". Having cited Śrīdhara's explanation with "ye tu" etc., they state the unacceptable there - "tair" etc. Anusandheyam means: In that counting there would be the statement "four yāmas and two muhūrtas in a day", not just that much, so they should consider that. Evamapī etc. Even if for dharma, due to the later statement "a hundred years is determined as the maximum lifespan for humans", this counting is for that purpose, so as it determines lifespan, in omitting four ghaṭikās the lifespan measure would not be complete, so there is no purpose in omitting it. Tatra means in day and night. Anyadā means in the two twilights. They state another flaw - udyann etc. Thus in this statement, having included twilight in taking away lifespan, it is determined that twilights are also included in lifespan measurement, but if they were not included there would be contradiction with the stated verse. They say that even accepting the stated alternative view does not remove the stated flaw - evam etc. They state the inappropriateness of the previous assumption due to contradiction with the statement to be made - kiñca etc. || 6 || 7 || 8 ||

Śrī Giridhara-kṛtā Bāla Prabodhinī

Now he describes the middle time state with the characteristics of dyad, triad etc. - aṇu iti. Two paramāṇus make one aṇu, one aṇu is made of two paramāṇus, the time the sun takes to cross that is an aṇu-kāla. Three aṇus make one trasareṇu, remembered as stated by the elders, one trasareṇu is made of three aṇus, the time the sun takes to cross that is remembered as a trasareṇu-kāla. Paramāṇu and aṇu are not perceptible due to extreme subtlety, but trasareṇu is perceptible, as they say - jalārke iti. Seen (avagata) in sunbeams (arkara śmiṣu) entering through lattice holes in a window, that which due to extreme lightness flies (agāt) upwards towards the sky (kham) alone is a trasareṇu. In the reading "na gām", it means it is seen flying upwards towards the sky alone, but is not seen falling towards the earth. || 5 ||

The time the sun takes to traverse three trasareṇus is remembered as a truṭi, stated with the name truṭi. One vedha-named time consists of one hundred parts in the form of truṭis. One lava is remembered as made of three of those vedhas. || 6 ||

Three lavas should be known as one nimeṣa. Three of those nimeṣas are said to be one kṣaṇa. They know five kṣaṇas as one kāṣṭhā. Fifteen of those kāṣṭhās make one laghu. || 7 ||

Fifteen laghus are said to be one nāḍikā. Two of those nāḍikās make one muhūrta. Six or seven nāḍikās make one prahara for humans. That same is a yāma, the fourth part of a day or night, six in decrease and seven in increase, excluding the two twilight muhūrtas, should be known. Even there the word "adya" is for showing non-fixity, as it is impossible to show all the variations daily. With "nṛṇām" the human measure is stated. || 8 ||

Hindī Anuvāda

Two atoms combine to form one molecule, and three molecules combining form one 'trasareṇu' (particle of dust), which can be seen floating in the air through the sunlight coming from a window. || 5 ||

The time it takes the sun to pass through three such trasareṇus is called a 'truṭi' (fraction of a second). A hundred times this duration is called a 'vedha', and three vedhas make one 'lava'. || 6 ||

Three lavas make one 'nimeṣa' (blink), and three nimeṣas make one 'kṣaṇa' (moment). Five kṣaṇas make one 'kāṣṭhā', and fifteen kāṣṭhās make one 'laghu'. || 7 ||

Fifteen laghus make one 'nāḍikā' (daṇḍa) (hour), two nāḍikās make one 'muhūrta', and according to the increase or decrease of the day (excluding the two muhūrtas of twilight at dawn and dusk), six or seven nāḍikās make one 'prahara'. This is called a 'yāma', which is a quarter of a human day or night. || 8 ||